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Sunday, July 22, 2012

HISTORY OF JEWELLERY

Throughout human history irrespective of religion race or culture jewelry has existed as an integral form of expression, wealth and social status. While the materials and techniques used to manufacture jewelry have in many ways evolved there are also a number of similarities with the very first forms of jewelry worn some 90,000 years ago. During this time bead necklaces constructed from shells were strung together with twine most likely as charms. Necklaces constructed from the same components are still available today. While new trends such as dangle earrings and promise rings dominate today's jewelry fashions, bracelets first worn in 4700BC during the reign of King Zer were constructed from gold and manufactured in a style widely available today.

EVOLVING FUNCTIONS OF JEWELRY

The function of jewelry has evolved and varied over time from a form of currency to a fashion accessory and form of artistic expression. Numerous cultures have utilized jewelry as a form of currency and continue to do so today. Royal jewels have been used to secure the wealth of counties and for many our precious metal and gemstone jewelry rank among as our most expensive assets. For as long as precious metal and gemstones have been used to create jewelry it has existed as a sign of wealth. Many forms of jewelry have their roots in function, pins, buckles and brooches were initially created to serve a specific function but later evolved into more decorative pieces eventually considered ornamentation and jewelry. Jewelry has also played an important part of religion denoting membership and status within the religion as well as various social groups.

EGYPTIAN JEWELRY

Many consider the period of Egyptian jewelry as the dawning period for our modern form of jewelry. It was during this time that the manufacturing of jewelry became a profession and techniques and skills evolved to create a wide variety of styles and adornments. Jewelry craftsman began to utilize artistic skill and an increasingly wide variety of materials. While artistic skill was valued the primary purpose of jewelry was to act as amulets and talismans. Gemstone and metal color was of greater importance than any other attribute. Gold was used extensively but this is primarily because it was readily available and very easy to work with. Many expensive gemstones we consider precious today like diamonds were very rarely used simply because they did not exhibit the color or symbolism of other gemstones. Egyptian beliefs stipulated that every gemstone carried certain mystical powers which would be transferred to the owner when worn as jewelry. Symbols such as the sacred Egyptian scarab also formed an important part of jewelry and were also believed to carry certain powers.

GREEK AND ROMAN JEWELRY

Early Greek and Roman jewelry relied heavily upon trade with neighboring cultures and is therefore quite varied in style and construction. Cultural symbolism once again played an important part of jewelry during this period. Greek and Roman jewelry was often created to symbolize legends and gods and later popular cultural beliefs. During this time metal working techniques evolved and jewelry pieces became more intricate and delicate. These techniques resulted in the increased popularity of earrings and other pieces which required more delicate construction methods. Unlike other dominant cultures the Greek and Roman cultures did not ascribe to the belief that gemstones possessed certain mystical powers. For this reason stones metals are used as the predominant construction materials. This period is renowned for the creation of the cameo. The cameo is a piece of stone carved to create a portrait of a leader or god. This form of jewelry remains popular today and has enjoyed a number of resurgences throughout history. Initially Greek jewelry craftsman created highly detailed portraits of Alexander the Great. No other portraits were permitted by law until the later part of this period.

JEWELRY DURING THE MIDDLE AGE

As the majority of world adopted Christianity cultural styles began to converge. Jewelry during this time was used primarily as a form of symbolizing Christian faith. During the early part of the middle ages Christian monasteries were responsible for producing the better part of the worlds jewelry. Early monasteries were required to learn trades in order to support themselves financially with many turning the jewelry craftsmanship. During this time the first independent jewelry guilds were created to both support jewelry craftsman and the industry by implementing practices such as quality inspections. The growing demands for jewelry and a booming population resulted in increasingly sophisticated forgeries which the guild recognized a threat to their boom trade. Celtic cultures in Ireland were not yet affected by the spread of Christianity and so a number of unique styles and manufacturing methods were developed during the time. Unlike Christian cultures of the time the Celts very rarely maintained any form of records and so little is known about the symbolism of the now wildly popular Celtic designs. Precious stones and metals were once again reserved for the wealthy and were even for lower classes during certain periods.

JEWELRY DURING THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD

Commonly referred to as the “Jewel Age” jewelry began during the Renaissance to adopt a newfound purpose. Prior to this time jewelry served primarily as form of symbolism and wealth, forming an integral part of expressing religious and cultural beliefs. During Renaissance period the roles of jewelry began to diverge. Increasingly jewelry served the role of body adornment, created solely for the purpose of improving personal presentation and beauty. While jewelry was already seen as sign of wealth many now began to collect it solely for the purpose of protecting ones wealth. As a form of currency it was easily protected, easy to sell and universally valuable. Due to the focus on the role of jewelry in enhancing beauty gemstones were prized for attributes such as color, luster and shine over the previously held beliefs of mystical powers. For the first time in history the use of Diamond was popularized and a number of cutting methods and shapes were developed. Discoveries of new countries resulted in massive influx of previously scarce metals and gemstones. The majority of extravagant pieces we recognize today were commission by French and English royalty during this period.

17TH CENTURY ONWARDS

The increasing wealth of the general population and relatively relaxed social attitudes meant that the gold and silver pieces usually reserved for the rich and powerful could now be afforded by lower classes. The popularity of diamonds continued and so too did the methods of cutting diamond. Large scale war destroyed many of the precious pieces from the ‘Jewel Age’ and earlier. During this time the discovery of new countries and the spread of affordable media resulted in a fascination of previously unimagined flora and fauna. Jewelry began to take on the shapes of floral designs and animals with vividly colored gemstones and metals. This trend continued until the early part of the 20th Century and evolved with manufacturing technique to include intricate glass creations. The industrial revolution introduced unprecedented change to the world and jewelry fashions and trends changed faster than ever. Jewelry crafted during the Art Nouveau, Edwardian, Art Deco and Retro periods in particular are still popular today.

PRESENT DAY AND BEYOND

Today jewelry is increasingly viewed as a form of artistic expression as the tools and materials of production become increasingly affordable and available. This trend also continues to grow due to the fact that precious metals and gemstones are no longer utilized as signs of wealth and social status. Dramatic improvements in technology mean that jewelry constructed from affordable and readily available resources as well as synthetic materials are capable of rivaling the beauty of the most expensive natural gemstones and metals. These factors have contributed to a focus on design, creativity and artistic expression over symbolism and social status. As social barriers are removed and cultural influences are shared the variety of styles available increases. The predominant style of spring may vary completely from the predominant style of autumn. In addition to the increasing rate of change jewelry is now accepted more as a form of personal expression and so a wider and wider variety of styles continue to grow.

Introduction

Students of the natural sciences are in agreement when they say that of all the creatures in the animal kingdom, only humans seek to adorn themselves. Even as far in the past as primitive man, jewelry took on this role in a variety of forms.. Small objects were of primary importance, with some examples being found in the early Neolithic strata of the caverns in mas d’avil. It was here that many pierces stags’ teeth were discovered, often still in the shape of a necklace with its holding twine long since disintegrated. (Jewelry objects have now been found in pre-historic Africa that date back about 75,000 years.)
Closely related to the human need for ornamentation was the use of jewelry as amulets endowed with magical powers. For a true understanding of the growth and history of the importance of jewelry and precious stones, one has to be aware of the indelible belief that precious stones could affect the fortunes of the wearer.

Jewelry was made with certain convictions in mind, to meld into, conform to and strengthen beliefs. This was particularly true when religions began to form an important sociological bond.
Early in its inception, jewelry was associated with religious rites. Gold and jewels were used as gifts for the maintenance of worship. In accordance with this began the presumption that benefits could be derived from their wear and soon began the development of a complex network of fictitious powers being attributed to them. Curiously, many of these legends surrounding the benefits of certain stones were generally held all over the world. Gold and certain gems common to many parts of the globe were believed to yield similar virtues.

Jewellers as artists are evident throughout history. The art has been practiced in almost every condition in which civilizations have existed. It is most plausible that the metal worker, with an advance in knowledge, became the jeweller. As the more malleable metals were wrought into rings, bracelets, and armlets, it is conceivable that the need to posses small stones for the charm they retained made the metalworker turn to setting these stones in his or her metal ornaments . Although the methods were primitive, the fastening of stones became an integral part of the craft.

In jewelry circles today and in the recent past, there are considered only four truly precious stones: the diamond, the ruby, the emerald and the blue sapphire. Among the earliest known treasures of the pharaohs, emeralds, rubies and sapphires were seldom used, while turquoise, jasper, lapis lazuli, carnelian and rock crystal played a substantial role. Since color was all important, diamonds were quite unknown. The use of gemstones and precious metals during this time were not limited, but spread lavishly about wherever ornament was desired.


Soon jewelry advanced from a simple ornamental or amulet stance to a more practical one. Jewels became used as a symbol of rank, wealth and social standing. When taking on this role, they became an investment of marketable value. This economic aspect of easily liquidating these possessions became an essential part of the politics of Europe when Francis I instituted the crown jewels as legal entity. For his successors these jewels were often used during the religious wars to guarantee foreign loans.


The three basic roles that jewelry has played, the ornament, the amulet and the symbol of wealth, have remained constant to the present time. This paper will attempt to trace these developments, particularly in the growth and affect on the western world. Although this is not a definitive work, it will give the reader a broad background on some of the more popular methods of creating, legends and both customs and whims of style that have been combined to give us a history of jewelry.



A jewelry history glossary


For the benefit of the reader who is unaccustomed to the special vocabulary which has developed to fit the needs of jewelry and its many counterparts, a few of the more useful terms have been selected and defined. Some of these expressions are used throughout the work and are expounded upon here to provide the reader with a more complete knowledge.


Acus - a roman hairpin, or the pin of ancient brooches or buckles.


Aiglets, aglets or aigulets - tags or sheaths for the ends of ribbon, used in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.


Amulets - objects attributed with magical powers; used to ward off evil spirits or attract beneficial ones.


Aventurine glass - glass with glittering flashes, basically a brownish color. This was a trade secret of the Venetians.


Bristows or bristol diamonds - a type of crystal.


Bracteates - thin gold copies of coins or jewels, buried with the dead by the Greeks and antiquities.


Cire perdu - a lost wax process introduced in Egypt during the twelfth dynasty. Used in renaissance period for enameled jewels.


Damascening - work of inlaid gold or silver using an inferior metal, usually steel.


Enamels - glass that has been pulverized, mixed with gum until it formas a paste which may be applied with a brush and then hardened by firing. The varying types include:


champleve - metal is scooped out, leaving a design of cells. The enamel is then poured into these areas.


cloisonne - thin strips of metal are formed to make a design and enamel is used to fill the cells, or cloisons.


basse taille - design is carved at the bottom of a sunken space and shows through the transparent coat of enamel.


filigree enamel - the containing wires are twisted and the surface is not ground smooth.


painted enamels - paintings on enamel ground with china colors.


plique a jour - cloisonné without a metal base.


Enseigne - a jewel worn on the hat, popular during the renaissance. Had a symbolic or emblematic meaning. They were sewn into place, so they are not considered brooches.


Fillet - an ornamental band worn on the head.


Fibula - an archaeological term for a brooch of antiquity.


Ferroniere - a small jewel hanging by a narrow ribbon in the middle of the forehead. Worn in the renaissance and part of a nineteenth century revival.


Girdle hangers - Anglo-Saxon fasteners of a bag or purse.


Morse - a brooch or clasp to hold a cape in place.


Mosaic gold - an alloy similar to brass and pinchbeck. Used for mounting in the early nineteenth century.


Nef jewel - an ornament in the form of a ship. A favorite during the renaissance. The best known commemorate the armada.


Niello - a metallic composition of silver, lead and sulfur. This has been known since the earliest times. It resembles black enamel, but with a metallic luster.


Ouch, owche, nouche or nowche - a late medieval term for a brooch that fastens a garment in front.


Pomander - a case hung from the girdle in which perfume was placed. It had several parts hinged together, each containing a different scent.


Repousse work - a method of ornamenting sheet metal by using punches and other various tools to make holes and designs in the metal.


Sevigne - a brooch popular in the seventeenth century, consisting of an open-work bow, set with small diamonds and enamels.


Shot work - a large grain of metal placed in the middle of a silver coil. It is characteristic of many countries, including India and Scandinavia.


Torc or torque - a neck let found in several forms throughout the Celtic race. Bronze was most usually used, but gold can be fund.


Verre eglmise - used by early Christians and continued through the Byzantine era and the middle ages. This method used glass decorated by a design on the back in gold and colors.



Ancient and classical jewelry

Egypt


The earliest known record concerning the making of jewelry is found in Egypt. It is here along the stone walls of the chapel chambers of ancient tombs that the true history of jewelry begins. On these walls are reproductions of the Egyptian lapidary at work. This craftsman was essential to Egyptian jewelry for it was his job to cut and engrave the many small stones found in almost all Egyptian work. During this time, the jeweller was not only a skilled craftsman who made ornaments for personal adornment, but a goldsmith and engraver of metals for any purpose, including the minting of coins. Although the beginnings of jewelry as we know it can be traced to this time, Egyptians also had characteristic forms of jeweled ornaments for which we have no equivalent. The pectoral is one of these.


 It consisted of a breast ornament suspended from the neck by a ribbon or chain. These have been referred to as "portable shrines for the gods," for they were often in the design of various deities. Pectorals were made of bronze and covered in gold leaf, with the finest crafted of pure gold. Lapis, carnelian and turquoise were sometimes inlaid.

Another important Egyptian jewelry form, with which we have little experience, is the headdress. This often spectacular ornament took the form of an outer wig. Cleopatra is frequently pictured wearing a headdress of long flexible strings of gold beads or medallions of jewels falling loosely over the shoulders. They were held in place by a gold head band.

The Egyptian jewellers did show initiative and creativity in many areas, but the largest part of their work consisted of making amulets and talismans. They were not the first to invest their ornaments with powers of magic, but the jewellers of Egypt fully developed this aspect. This custom of wearing amulets seems to have been used since earliest times. Their first known use was to wrap them in with mummies as guardians or protectors of the dead. This then spread to the protection of the living.

Amulets most often represent the receptacle or the jewel which contains a charm. In Egypt, sha-sha or beads, were essential in the realm of amulets. The base word for the naming of beads was sha, Egyptian word for luck. Anyone in the Egyptian order could wear beads, the type being dependent on their wealth. The materials ranged from pearls to pottery clay, so even the poorest worker could posses a string of beads.

Egyptian ornamental devices always had the equal importance of a meaning. The goldsmiths’ designs were symbolic. These symbols, according to popular belief, exercised a magic power on behalf of the wearer. Symbols were produced in a varied assortment. A reproduction of the human-headed hawk represented the union of the body, soul, spirit and the heart. Eternity was symbolized by the eye of Horos. The fly with a human head gave the wearer the power to ascent up to heaven. Other popular designs were the sacred hawk, the hand of the goddess nut, the ankh, the nefer, the lotus flower and the falcon. The oldest amulet was the sistrum, a protection against evil. These amulets were mounted on gold and most often worn suspended around the neck by chains.

Gemstones were also attributed with supernatural powers according to their colors, characteristics and the mystic legends associated with them. Green jasper was an assurance of rain, agates were protection against spider bites and thunderstorms. To keep one free from serpent attacks, lapis lazuli was worn.

The piece of jewelry produced by the Egyptians which has had the most affect is the kheptra or kheper, which stems from the word meaning "to become, to come into being". These are better known to modern man as the shape of the little beetle called the scarab. They came in many forms, including gold, being modeled in clay and glazed with green or carved from stone. The stones could range from soapstone, serpentine, lapis lazuli, hematite, carnelian, jasper or whatever gem its owner could afford.

The scarab had significance as a religious symbol in Egypt and soon spread into Phoenicia, Etruria and Greece, where it became a timeless motif of design for jewelry. Egyptians dealt only with soft stones, while the Assyrians could take advantage of a harder surface, since they had the drills lacking in Egypt. The form of the beetle was carved into the top of the stone, while the flat base was carved the name of the owner, the reigning king and symbols of certain deities.

When the scarab was set in a ring it possessed a particularly efficient combination of desirable uses, especially in the realm of the amulet. Scarabs served this purpose before they reached the point of development where they took the first step toward being used as signets. It was this instance intaglio was developed. This is a method of cutting, where the stone is hollowed out instead of the design being raised above the surface. This aided the change from the scarab being a simple amulet to its use as a seal. The seals were used to stamp any property or document with the owner’s mark. These were then bound to him and he to them by a link of magic.
These signets were first worn on a woolen cord. Soon a replacement was found by using wire, with its advantage of being more durable. When wire was first in use, it was not drawn, but made by beating out gold, silver or bronze and then cutting them into strips. These were then lengthened and shaped by further hammering. In this way the wire was made flexible. Later the wire was a band of metal, shaped as a rather stiff hoop. The bezel, making up one side, was where the gem was set or the metal enlarged to hold an inscription.
Egyptian jewelry making reached its peak, especially in goldsmithing, during the twelfth dynasty from 1991-1786 BC. jewelry became more colorful, for in addition to stones and metals, glass came into use. 



It became popular immediately, for as mentioned previously, color was an important aspect of jewelry and more colors became available through the use of glass. Glass, when used as enamel, took the place of stones and further required no hand grinding, which was perhaps the most laborious part of jewelry making. Along with glass as enamels, came glass used in flower-like mosaics, similar to the Italian millefiori. This is a method wherein tubes of glass are bundled together in a rod, drawn out and pieces cut from it. The pieces were then set with the cut side showing, resembling a small flower. The Egyptians popularized this by placing the glass in rings.



Phoenicians and their jewelry






These Mediterranean and far east traders borrowed many of their ideas from those with whom they did business. In design, their jewelry loosely followed the patterns set in Egypt and Babylon. For this reason, their originality in the world of jewelry can be found in only a few areas.
The one area where the Phoenicians showed the most creativity was in the wearing of jewelry. Phoenician ladies pierced their ears along the rim to wear gold rings with drop-shaped pendants. Earrings were not the only objects that were worn in profusion. Women were ornamented by dozens of necklaces and rings were placed on each joint of every finger.


Their one original practice developed that influenced future jewelry making was their use of gold granulation. This is the method of designing metal with the placement of small gold beads. The Phoenicians elaborated on this procedure to make some of the finest gold filigree to ancient times.



Greek Jewelry


In the history of jewelry, the Greeks do not have a fixed style. Their designs do not represent a national idea, for there was a great influence felt from other countries. The only period in Greek history which largely dominated Greek style and design was the archaic period.
The first noticeable influx of style arrived from Egypt and Assyria. Greek mythology and  history appear through Greek jewelry. This is seen as jewelry portraying their deities, subjects from heroic legends and athletes. 


The Roman influence is noted when Greek jewels used more gems, particularly topaz, amethyst, aquamarine and the Syrian garnet.

Even though the Greeks gathered their styles and designs from other cultures, they still hold the front rank among goldsmiths. Greek gold filigree developed into extremely fine pieces of jewelry. Necklaces consisted a braid work, arranged in a varying intricate pattern with numerous small pendants portraying popular beliefs. Gold filigree pins were used in the fastening of the hair.

Throughout the Greek history of jewelry, gold maintained its first place of importance. Methods of working with the metal included embossing patterns filigrees and designs similar to the Phoenician gold granulation and its use of gold beads. Greek ladies were aglitter with gold having the delicacy of fine lace or embroidery. Since color was secondary to gold, gems and enamels were applied sparingly. Most of the jewelry representing ancient Greece is entirely of gold.

Characteristic among their jewelry was the use of pendants, sometimes the ladies were "a jangle with them". Necklaces of seventy-five or more, with their dangling vases, all worn together were not uncommon. These little vases of solid gold were typical among those who could afford them. Another popular pendant was the cross, made centuries before the Christian era.


Earrings were particularly varied. What began as tiny images of gods, were soon enlarged and embellished until the ear could no longer support the weight. It became necessary to attach the earring to the diadem, so that they hung over the ears, taking on the look of a type of pseudo-earring. Many of the more spectacular pieces suspended past the shoulders.

It has been conjectured that infrequent use of stones in Greek jewelry was because they decided that gems did not hold all the magical powers that other cultures attributed to them. Strangely enough, even the progressive physicians of Greece could not dispel the belief in the essential healing power of certain stones. Even the physician himself did not alter this in his own feelings. Instead of the stones being worn as an amulet, the soft stones were ground and the patient was prescribed the treatment of swallowing the mixture made with the gem. When the stones were hard, a paste was made with them and it was placed externally over the ailing part. Jasper was popular as a treatment for epilepsy, while amber and coral were the formula for eyes and throat trouble.


With regard to the scarab, Greek artisans developed this Egyptian custom into something designed for the Greek needs. The scarab became carved more realistically, while the engraved base became a reflection of Greek art. Using the intaglio method, the Greeks perfected the swivel ring. This shall be dealt with more thoroughly in the chapter entitled "rings", but basically it was a scarab which could be turned over and used as a seal for the owner. Soon only the scarab form was retained, and the ring became purely the holder of the signet stone. The signet was set solidly in a bed hollowed out of the metal. Often the flat top consisted of scenes of everyday life, particularly the duties of women.
It would be plausible to state that the most important and long lasting contribution of the Greek jewellers was the cameo.

 These small stone portraits first appeared under Alexander the great. A cameo is the reverse of the intaglio, where the stone is carved in relief. In this instance, the sculptor, not the lapidary, created the stone likenesses. At first the only portrait allowed by law was one of Alexander.
And perhaps for this reason the cameos were in an idealistic form. After his death, other persons were represented and the cameos began to portray more realism.


To demonstrate the staying power of these jewels, one has only to turn to the many revivals of this style of ornamentation. The cameo quickly spread to Rome, where the ladies of Rome joined those of Greece in wearing cameos in their hair and as clasps for their robes. Military men wore them as shoulder fasteners, a custom carried on into the crusades of later centuries. After the death of Severus in Rome, cameo cutting fell into disuse. When they were revived, the cameos showed traces of the changes in religion due to the influence of Constantine the great. The medieval and Victorian rebirth of cameos will be dealt with in their respective chapters



Italian jewelry




The early history of Italian jewelry begins approximately three thousand years ago with the Etruscan civilization. Populating the southern tip of Italy known today, these people, many feel, created jewelry that has never been equaled. There are considered to be three periods of noticeable differences in Etruscan jewelry and gold work: the first being a close association with Egyptian creations, the second was the influence of Greece, with the period of decline composing the third.


For the Etruscans, all jewelry was popular. Men and women wore rings on every joint of every finger, all the rings being carved with amazing realism. Head ornaments, diadems and wreaths of flowers elaborately dressed the heads of many women. All of these ornaments were crafted of fine gold, many accompanied by long gold hairpins topped with balls or acorns. Amber was the most favored stone, set in silver, gold or moonlight tinted gold called "electrum". Their granular gold work was as fine as the Phoenicians, but lost its popularity with the influx of Greek filigree.
The universal use of amulets was not ignored by the Etruscans. Their necklaces often held a hollow pendant in which was carried a magic token. These pendants, called bullas, were molded from gold to form tiny vases, heads of gods or small animals.
The most important offspring of Greek and Etruscan design appeared in Roman jewelry. Conquering roman armies brought back artists and craftsmen who continued in the same vein of jewelry developed in their homelands. Gold continued as the metal of ornamentation and wealth. Necklaces were composed of pearls and beads, but there were interspersed with Greek cameos and coins.
It was during the formation of roman ornamental customs that rings took on the onus of being a sign of rank, particularly under Tiberius. The Romans became so frivolous with regard to jewelry that Cato passed laws concerning the amount of ornamentation that could be worn. Men’s rings fell under these regulations adjusting the kind of metal allowable under certain conditions. Gold, silver or iron could be used depending on the owner’s station. For example, the gold rings given to senators could not be worn in private life, but were to be used only when the senator was sent on an embassy as a badge of office. The only type of ring not under the censor’s ban was the iron signet ring.

Rings were also popular among the roman ladies, but their jewelry consisted of much more. To complement the extravagant coiffure of the roman women, the jeweller designed hairpins. These were often of solid gold and eight inches long or longer. Gold was the most popular in the making of bracelets, too. Bracelets were not only worn at the wrist, but on every section of the arm. Gold coins were used to decorate all jewelry worn, with the wealthy woman wearing a profusion of coins on any part of her which ornamentation was warranted.
It was during these ancient and classical times that the basics of creating jewelry were founded. Alloying of metals, setting stones and enamels were all contributed by these premier jewelers. Because the fundamentals had already been evolved, future artists and craftsmen were allowed to focus their time and effort on work to further the beauty and design of jewelry.



Jewelry of the middle ages


The period covered in this chapter will be from the fall of the roman empire, approximately 500 AD to the expulsion of the Moslems from Spain in 1492, which many historians consider the end of medieval history. Although these years embody the longest period of human history, there are intertwining events that work to hold this time together. The growth of Christianity continued to evolve, giving many estranged peoples a similarity of beliefs. This religious development had many effects throughout a tumultuous world, ranging from the broadening formation of universities, to the violence of the ensuing crusades. Contrary to many popular beliefs, the middle ages did not cause a halt to creativity. Under the auspices of Charlemagne, the Carolingian renaissance occurred. There was also an Irish renaissance during which was created many spectacular illuminations such as the book of Kells.

After the fall of the roman empire, design of jewelry became less important than the portraying of a mystical significance in the piece. Speed was desired over quality, most probably because of the feeling of "impending doom" due to the drastic change in life as it had been known. As Christianity spread, one institution was produced which brought back the perfection sought in earlier times. Strange as it may seem, the monastery holds this position. For the men who became monks, it was essential that they practice a trade to keep the monastery flourishing. While the majority of the monks turned to farming or wine making, some of them preferred goldsmithing. Most of their talent for this art was concentrated on ecclesiastical jewels. Even when the jeweller was commissioned by private patrons, there was always a strong religious influence.
Like the jewelers of the pharaohsthe monk craftsman was expected to be not only a goldsmith, but a designer, sculptor, smelter, inlay and enamel worker, and an expert in the cutting and mounting of stones. Their methods were not much improved, for they retained those used by the "pagans". Less is known about the creations of these monks than earlier jewelers, because the practice of burying a man’s possessions with him was a custom disapproved of in this developing religion of Christianity. For this reason, many precious stones have been removed from pieces created in the middle ages and the metal melted down for use when new designs were formed, when capital was needed to support a conflict or a monarch wanted to continue to live in the manner to which he was accustomed.

When monasteries turned more to the business of religion in the later middle ages, workers in the same metals developed a different method of production. Jewelers with similar interests, who produced similar objects, consorted together and often dwelt on the same streets and thoroughfares for protection. This also led to a smoother pursuance of their business. In France, these groups of jewelers were known as corporations, while in England they assumed the name of guild.

An example of these organizations of jewelers was the worshipful company of goldsmiths located in London. Like many of the guilds, this was developed in a semi-religious mode. They all had a patron saint and the worshipful company’s was St. Dustan. Because of the institution of a system of purity for the metal used, this guild established a high reputation. This association of goldsmiths also fixed a standard "by which the quality of the wares wrought by the members could be gauged and known". One of the most important duties associated with the creating of jewelry was the thorough scrutinization with which every article for sale had to pass. Several practices were used to cheapen jewelry, which the guild protected against. Tin was often covered with gold so cleverly that the public was easily deceived. In addition, counterfeit stones were used to replace real jewels.

As the manufacture of jewelry became more involved, guilds divided into different areas. The busiest of these guilds was involved with making brooches. This organization was further divided, with the fine work done by the goldsmith and the everyday brooches created by the lower orders of craftsman.
A photo of a classic cameo brooch,Italian  19th Century 
Museum of Art
Even though jewelry design was dominated by Christian ideas, impressions were expressed from other cultures. The German tribes, better known as "barbarians", contributed the popular inlaid jewelry. The gems are ground flat and each is fastened in its own compartment. This creates the inlaid appearance. The effect sought seems to be to attain a rich, flat color. Garnets, turquoise and mother-of-pearl were used, manifesting a semblance of eastern design.


When Constantine the great founded Constantinople in 330 AD., jewelry began to take on a more oriental look. The influence of the Byzantines characterized jewelry design throughout the middle ages. One of these distinctions was the greater use of stones, with a leaning towards more splendor in color. Cloisonné was used in place of stones when more specialized colors were sought. Niello work was often used when decorating gold and silver.
The classic cameos of the Greco-roman era were surpassed during their medieval revival. German agate was chosen as the best material for creating cameos. There were some essential differences between the classical and medieval cameos. Greek cameos had an underside quite flat, while on the revival ones the underside was hollowed out. The later cameos were also worked in a higher relief than the ancients. Their basic similarity was in the subject matter, with the medieval craftsman using classic gems as examples.
During the later middle ages, the Byzantine traditions maintained their strong influences. New patterns of settings did begin to emerge though, which continued into the renaissance. Stones were cut en cabochon and were irregular in outline. This was attained by not cutting facets into the stone, but smoothing its natural shape with the result being a flat underside for easy setting, and a rounded top to display more color.
One important type of jewelry was created during the middle ages, but was neither influenced by, nor did it affect the rest of the jewelry world. This was found in the extreme west in the country of Ireland. Because of its physical separation from the rest of the medieval culture, Celtic metal workmaintained its independent existence.

There are many peculiarities which separate these designs from others of the same time, one being the use of hammer and rivets due to their ignorance of soldering. The general popularity in all cultures of brooches and bracelets was not changed with Celtic jewelry. But, two of their most widespread pieces of jewelry are of pure Celtic design. One of these was the penannular brooch. The purpose of this brooch was to fasten the heavy cloaks of the Celts. For this reason the brooches were generally of a large size. They also served to demonstrate the level of skill with which the Celts had accomplished in enameling. Their work was minute and fine in detail, with both sides of the brooch completely filled with design. These patterns were rather geometric, comparable to the mosaics of the Arabs. Most probably due to their lack of material diagrams were first worked on the bone of an animal to see how the completed design would appear on metal. These bones were collected by the jeweller to demonstrate to future patrons his fine work and craftsmanship.
Another Celtic original was the torque. This was a neck ring of twisted gold, usually rather massive in form. Most of them were worn around the neck, but it is conjectured that those of close to five feet in diameter were worn from the shoulder across the chest, probably for ceremonial purposes.


The culminating point of Celtic adornments was reached with the influx of Christianity into Ireland. With this the most regal of settings were designed for the enhancement of Christian relics. Cabochon stones were used dramatically, with clear ones often set over relics for magnifying purposes.


Moving from the Celts back to the continent, there were two developments in jewelry which were distinctly medieval. Perhaps the most popular and widely used piece of ornamentation were the pilgrims’ signs. 
When a pilgrim made the journey to a shrine, he or she was given or bought a token of the saint of the particular shrine. These were made of lead or pewter in unlimited numbers at the shrine itself. These signs were worn on the hats and because of the meaning they took on as being talismans, the tokens were collected by many who never visited a shrine. The most popular token was from the reliquary of Thomas A. Becket. By the time of the renaissance, these tokens developed into a more jewel-like form called the "enseigne", which will be discussed in that chapter.
The pomme d’ambre was another typically medieval ornament, most probably worn out of necessity more than for beauty. The apples of amber, orpomanderswere elaborate openwork metal in shape of a hollow sphere. Pomanders were used initially to carry a religious image or relic. They soon became highly ornamental and were divided into sections, each of which held a different perfume. Due to their rather large size, the pomander could not be worn as pendants so they were draped from the girdle. One can understand the need for these objects, for cleanliness was not the order of the day.

As Cato found necessary in Rome to limit the wearing of jewelry, so it was in the middle ages. Ever since jewelry became a symbol of wealth, restrictions for its use were often set by those who used jewelry as this type of symbol most frequently. In 1283, a French edict was proclaimed to prohibit its citizens from wearing precious stones, pearls and certain jewels of gold or silver. In a statue "de victu et vestitu", Edward  IIIi of England delegated the kind of costume and adornment that the various classes of society might aspire to. The lower classes, including craftsmen and yeomen, were prohibited from wearing any jewels of gold or silver. How they could have afforded them in the first place is another question. Only nobles and merchants maintaining a certain income were authorized to own precious stones. In 1380 and 1404, even more stringent laws limiting jewelry were passed in Spain.

Although the middle ages were not as productive as the preceding era, it did serve to continue the basic methods of manufacture and a conception of jewelry that truly represents that period of growth and new ideas.

Jewelry of the renaissance


One all important characteristic of the renaissance of the late fifteenth through the sixteenth centuries was the search for beauty. Jewelry was a vital part of this quest. It was during this time that jewelry took on its more modern meaning of being an object of ornamentation for beauty, and a distinct symbolization of wealth. During this century and a half, the years were tense ones. For this reason, the rich found it easier to condense their wealth into the more portable and easily exchangeable form of jewels. These patrons aided in the growth of more fabulous jewels finding them an easy way to exhibit their wealth in a relatively safe manner.
Perhaps the most abrupt change in design from the middle ages to the renaissance was the lessening appearance of ecclesiastical influences. 
The jeweller and jewellery of the renaissance copied objects of real life, with the mainspring being the beauty of animated things. Exotic animals, like parrots, lizards and pelicans, were an essential part of the diversity of designs which were created.
Color was as vivid and as exotic as the subject matter. One point that is clear in the pieces that still exist, is that precious stones played an accessory role in relation to the use of enameled gold. Usually one large stone would be chosen as a basis on which the jewels were designed.
The preeminent effect of jewels was their color, but there was also an increased utilization of diamonds. Up until this time diamonds were in disfavor simply for the fact of their colorlessness. At first no cutting of the stone was required. The stone would be polished to a cabochon style. The first cutting of facets in "planned regularity" is attributed to a jeweller from Bruges, Louis de Berquem. In 1475 he produced what he considered the "perfect cut." In the sixteenth century faceting developed into the rose cut. This consisted of a flat bottomed faceted cut with a domed point on top.Rose diamonds continued in popularity for the next three centuries, being particularly in demand by the eighteenth century Victorians.

It is possible that one historical event had more to do with the the change in the design of jewellery than any other. This was the discovery of the new world. It was from these lands that the great variety of animals were brought back to stir the jewellers and buyers imaginations. Another discovery helped to originate the title of "the jewel age" for the renaissance. This was the conquering of Peru and Mexico, for it was there that gold and silver were found in greater quantities then had ever been known. With the findings of the Incas and the Aztecs, the rulers of Europe were able to have the most spectacular jewels made regardless of the amount of rare metal needed.
A photo of an English pendant around 1800
It was during this time that the royal jewels took on their air of abundance. Although it was the French who set the fashions, it was the English who had the buying power. The court of England, especially during the reign of Henry VIII, could display a fantastic collection of rare gems in exquisite settings of gold, silver and enamel. At Henry's death there were discovered in his personal collection of jewels to be two hundred and thirty-four rings and three hundred and twenty-four brooches. The most famous portrait of Henry VIII shows him rather stoutly displaying his necklace of rubies and pearls, with a large ring on every finger.If any form of jewelry was chosen for the reason that is outshone all other forms during the renaissance, it would have to be the pendantThe pendant expressed the mental concepts of the renaissance. It took a multiplicity of forms and embodied many significances. The large irregularly shaped pearls, known as baroque pearls, were extremely popular. Due to this widespread acceptance, these pearls were often used as the center of design. A lizard’s back or a ship’s sail was frequently a baroque pearl fulfilling the needed shape. The goldsmiths were provided with an infinite variety of materials which combined with the extravagant expenditures levied by patrons, permitted the craftsman to use all his ingenuity. For all these reasons, the pendant appealed to both the jeweler and the customer.


The inspiration of antiquity did not only take hold of the medieval mind, but also that of the renaissance. A problem of design occurred due to the lack of knowledge about the jewels of Greek of Rome, for their jewels were practically unknown. Antique cameos were collected and imitated, but most of these were made during the revival of the middle ages. The fashion for cameos spread quickly, but their work never surpassed that done by the medieval craftsman.
One invention of the renaissance jeweller took its inception from a fashion of clothing popular at the time. This was the girdle, which had its beginning as a wrap of leather worn around the waist and hips. Its purpose has been replaced by the modern use of pockets. Essentials that had to be carried with one at all times were placed in the folds of the leather. Jewelers imitated this prevailing practice by making girdles made of flat chain of silver-gild or of bronze silvered or gilded. On more formal occasions it encircled the body firmly, and was decorated with enamels, gems and ornamented clasps. The most popular and still necessary object hung from these girdles was the pomander.
Another ornament was worn from these jeweled girdles, but its history was not as time-honored as the pomander for it was not invented until the sixteenth century. It was then that the first portable watches were made. The portraits of the time show that they were worn from the waist. They also demonstrate that the typical watch took on a great variety of shapes, not including round. Watches are shown in the shape of the cross, miniature medallions and the shape of reliquaries.

Mentioned in the previous chapter were the pilgrim signs and their progression into the enseignes of the renaissance. The baser of these hat ornaments were made of copper or bronze. This type was either cast or stamped  with a die. The rich could take advantage of the more sculptural nature of the medallion. Their enseignes were made with the highest level of workmanship, using enamels and stones to give the piece gaiety and a striking effect. The designs were of two influences, one being a continuation of Christian sentiments and the other being the mythological expression of the pagan ideals of the renaissance.

The renaissance’s contribution to the history of jewelry was its vivid colors. Jewelry became spectacularly eccentric with the use of baroque pearls, enamels, faceted diamonds and colorful stones. It was this bestowal that has made the greatest influence on future jewelry craftsmen and collectors.








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